星期六, 4月 22, 2006

「暴力衝突」與「理性上街」從反世貿示威看香港的「遊行身體」想像

此為CRS 2014 "身體想像與再現文化" 的論文, 導師為彭麗君教授

「暴力衝突」與「理性上街」
從反世貿示威看香港的「遊行身體」想像


隨著最後一名韓農被法庭裁定因證據不足而獲撤銷控罪,香港的反世貿的運動可算是正式完結了。觀乎自去年年終開始引發的一連串事件,無論是世貿會議或者反世貿運動,都對首次主辦世貿部長級會議的香港帶來極大的衝擊和反思。除了第三世界的貧窮問題、比較優勢和貿易政策等經濟學和國際關係的討論之外,最值得深思,無疑是對「身體」的思索。從示威人士的肢體表演、警方與韓農的暴力衝突,到聲援被捕同胞的絕食抗議,「身體」都似乎擔當著重要的角色。事實上,在這個近年被稱為「示威之都」的城市空間之下,反世貿遊行人士的身體展演和踐行,不單止局限於作為反抗全球貿易霸權的工具,更同時引入一種國際性的遊行思維,幫助我們重新反思近年香港的示威邏輯和本土的遊行身體想像。

韓農的「暴力」肢體劇場

去年十二月,「世界貿易組織第六次部長級會議」在香港舉行。作為主辦城市,香港要預備的不單單是會議和場地的安排,更重要的是防範反世貿示威人士的保安工作。早於六月起,各大媒體得知反世貿人士即將到港的消息後,便開始紛紛報導他們過往在西雅圖和多哈等反世貿運動的「輝煌戰績」。「世貿總幹事:全球逾二千組織登記示威 八千激進韓農年底襲港?[1]、「直擊大本營韓農反世貿戰略曝光火攻會展玩自焚」[2]…等類似的新聞頭條到處可見。正如梁文道在一篇名為〈人家都要被燒死了,我們還在看戲〉的文章中所言,「…我們只關心世貿會議會不會變成一場香港電影式的街頭動作片,而它的高潮又會不會是一場自焚show。」[3]。從一開始,「香港人/外國人(韓農)=觀看者/表演者=和平理性/激進暴力」的一系列二元邏輯便已經稍稍地運作了,香港人是觀眾,遠道來港的示威者則以激進的身體作演出。

結果,在世貿會議舉行期間的整整一個星期之中,灣仔區變成了示威人士的國際舞台,從外國水兵的酒吧和本土的消費熱點,變成一個極具政治張力的地帶。在首數天,示威人士操控自己的身體,在街道上進行各式各樣的表演:跳海抗議、衝防線和奪走警方的盾牌等「火爆」場面、舉辦展覽和論壇,還有最為人熟悉的「三步一叩」。從維園到示威區,身體成了他們政治和道德的武器,表達他們集體的激情訴求,把軒尼斯道、馬師道和駱克道等大街變成一個深受全球關注的政治文化空間。劉細良把這些靈活多變、充滿動感的展現和「有限度的肢體衝突」,比喻為「群眾運動的劇場演出」。他指出,「『暴力示威』是製造最大混亂效果,以破壞社會秩序為主要目標」,「肢體衝突」則是「有明確訴求,希望將群眾的政治或政策訴求通過示威放在社會議程上,再通過傳媒報道,引發社會大眾參與討論」,不過「也要知道底線在哪?,包括不能用攻擊性武器嚴重傷害對方身體,不能破壞社會秩序,攻擊其他人士…」[4]

在反世貿遊行期間,12月17日的衝突無疑是最具震撼力的,因為這條「底線」在那一天被衝破,也是從「肢體衝突」過渡到「暴力示威」的分水嶺。之前,以韓國農民為首的遊行,都以相對平和的手法進行,當中「三步一叩」更使傳媒的作一百八十度的改變,例如《東方日報》在第二天便以〈長今精神,港人動容〉作頭條[5]。筆者記得當天的電視新聞節目訪問了數位市民,他們都認為這是外國人「入鄉隨俗」的表現,也就是說,外地激進的示威者也追隨了香港「和平」、「理性」的遊行文化;但是,這種氣氛在17日那天後徹頭徹尾地倒轉了。當日,示威人士在遊行到示威區的途中發難,推倒鐵馬,穿越了之前與警方一早商議好的遊行路線,在灣仔四處游移,企圖直闖世貿會議的場地-國際會議展覽中心。結果,灣仔區的商業活動幾乎完全停頓,交通陷於癱瘓。從電視畫面可見,示威人士以鐵枝作武器,又屢次以鐵馬衝擊防線,最後得警方出動裝甲車和催淚彈,才成功驅散示威人士,把他們包圍,作為當日的完結。第二天,《明報》製作了以〈世貿騷亂〉為題的特輯;[6]成報的頭條則為〈灣仔變戰場〉[7],而其他報章也紛紛以「灣仔淪陷」和「爆發巷戰」這些字眼作標題。這天之後,示威人士的身體衝出了那「有限度/底線」的「肢體劇場」,從「做show」的「演員」成了「暴民」,把「劇場」的空間急劇扭曲成「戰場」。

本土的遊行身體

數日前還令香港人感動的和平示威者,轉眼間變成漠視香港非暴力傳統的「暴民」,是因為示威者的表現已經超出了我們的「示威身體」的界線和「劇場的底線」。那一套「香港人/外國人(韓農)=觀看者/表演者=和平理性/激進暴力」的二元邏輯的形成,背後其實就是香港本土跟國際示威者對身體想像的差異。對自我身體形象的認知,成了我們對「暴力/理性」的論述的最重要一部份,也構成了我們如何判定韓農的動作是「理性」的還是「暴力」的。如果示威者的身體是符合我們認為理應如此的表現和秩序,那就是「理性」,否則就是「搞事」。多數有關世貿示威的評論,就是從這種論述出發,把我們傳統的示威邏輯硬套在外來的示威者之上,因此才會有「暴民襲港」或「港人動容」之類以香港為中心的頭條。 把這次國際性遊行,跟近年香港的遊行對比,我們便更突出本土身體和遊行論述的視限了。

有一條街道上擠滿了人,等待出發的群眾無奈地枯站在警方架起的警戒線後,烈日當空,其苦可想而知,但沒有人願意越雷池半步。終於,有一個男子穿過了繩索向警員的方向邁步,警方緊張起來急忙喝止。原來那個男子只是喝完了飲料,身邊又沒有垃圾桶,所以只好越過警察防線去路口的垃圾桶把空罐丟掉。[8]

這是張虹為紀錄2003年「七一大遊行」所拍的電影《七月》中最經典的一幕。梁文道認為,這一段表達了「香港人的典型形象」,也代表了「以機械地叫口號,列隊走路為主流的香港示威文化」[9]。遊行的本質是反對權力核心,所以激烈的衝突和擾亂秩序的行為屢見不鮮,部份有強大群眾支持的抗爭,更會採以最顛覆的手法。我們經常聽到法國工會動員工人和學生罷工罷課,藉此引發全國大混亂,以迫使政府讓步,最近巴黎的大學生抗爭新的勞工法就是很好的例子。但在香港,示威者的身體卻是跟隨著大論述(grand-narrative)所要求的「守法」、「理性」。正因如此,才會出現「為掉垃圾而越過封鎖線」的事情,也經常聽到市民對遊行造成的交通不便而抱怨,商店店主埋怨因此而損失了多少。事實上,自從「七一遊行」後,「和平」、「理性」、「尊重法治」和「不要過激」這些概念便一直支配著香港的遊行文化,也作為我們上街時身體活動的原則和規範。無論是議員、學者和市民,一被問及關於對遊行的看法,總會報以「這是香港人應有的權利,但不應該影響日常生活為大前提」這一類帶有「秩序情意結」意味的答案。所以,近年的七一遊行、元旦遊行,甚至最近2005年12月4日的「一二.四」10萬人上街,都是以「集體假日散步」的方式進行,從維園行到政府總部,再繞一個圈便算完成任務,希望把傷害減到最低。

這種「集體散步」的方式,大大削弱了身體的示威功能。正如劉細良所指,「群眾運動被淡化為一種生活方式,這表示群眾運動失去了應有的效果,被主辦遊行的人閹割了」[10]。每次遊行前夕,每當各界推測上街的人數時,引用的因素很多時都是「是否公眾假期」、「會不會落雨」、「當日家庭有沒有節目」這些跟反抗和建制本身毫無關連的因素。「好像大家除了Shopping、外遊、賭馬賭波之外,加多了一項叫遊行示威。」[11],遊行變成了一種消閒節目, 一種為了消費而作的身體運動,而非用身體作最後的抵抗姿態。
香港的遊行文化,把身體活動的可能性和創造性,限制在「步行」這個動作,使我們難以衝破既有的空間設計。傅柯(M. Foucault)對現代監獄的研究,使我們意識到,空間不是一個中立的場域。監獄、學校、醫院以至街道的設計,都是權力空間化的後果,也是知識和論述生產的結果,以規訓我們的身體[12]。但是,身體其實有其能動性,可以打破空間的規範,就正如巴赫汀(M. Bakhtin)所研究的中世紀狂歡節,人們在節慶中作各種怪誕的裝扮,顯示身體不是單以官方的標準或正統文化作為發展的依歸,而是以多元的身體展演作為武器和挑戰建制的象徵[13]。台灣社會學家黃金麟亦指出,空間和身體並不是處在一種單方向的決定狀態,身體的踐行與符號表演,可使空間產生戲劇性的轉變[14]。所以,雖然我們不能否認「七一大遊行」等數十萬人的群眾運動對改變政治局面有著重大的貢獻,但香港人對遊行示威的身體想像和規範,遵循既有空間的秩序,自我封閉在預先劃定的區域之中(也就是示威區和以藍色的封鎖線固定了的遊行路線),削弱了身體改變既有空間的威力。「身體」沒有突出的表演作用,它們被約化成「數字」,成了判斷一個遊行是否成功的惟一標準,它的政治性和顛覆性大大減少了,即使10萬人上街爭取普選,震撼力也未及三百名韓國農民的肢體表演。

打破身體的迷思?

明白了香港的遊行身體的形態,便不難明白為什麼韓農的形象會在二十四小時內從「入鄉隨俗」的外國人,遙身一變成製造混亂的「暴民」。外來的示威者,一心以自己的身體,盡量搏取國際傳媒的注意,他們沒有香港人那種對身體的本土規訓,「他們十分清楚在灣仔這臨時國際舞台上要完成的國際使命…國際舞台上演的自然是國際標準的示威和反示威」[15],他們根本無需「入鄉隨俗」,「三步一叩」只是見面禮。對他們來說,衝出警方劃定的範圍、衝擊會場和防暴警察是正常不過的事,以國際的示威尺度來說,根本說不上是「暴力」,極其量只能算是不守秩序、不守香港城市空間對遊行身體所作出的限制,他們眼中的「暴力」,很可能要到發生燒車、搶掠和縱火的程度;相反,在香港,遊行是一種自我圈限(self-enclosure)的群眾運動,甚至只能算是一種「集體散步」的假日消遣。為了要守法和保持「理性」,一點越軌的行為也不會出現。所以,兩種對身體的不同想像,引致了大家對「暴力」和「理性」的理解的誤差。

這次反世貿運動,使我們反思近年上街時所持的「理性」和「守法」。正如潘國靈所言,我們不禁要問,「怎麼我們的嘉年華那麼不同於人家的嘉年華,沒有論壇、展覽、交流等知性配套?怎麼我們的身體表達性是如此的低,我們不會隨鼓樂擺動身軀(有人從民族性解釋),我們超級「錫身」,遊行成了局部大腿的活動」[16]。外國示威者利用靈活的身體所展現的潛能與動力,為我們作出了一次國際性遊行的身體示範,讓我們作為參考,方便日後創造更多可能的策略。布爾迪厄(P. Bourdieu)曾說,「身體的儀態(hexis)是政治神話的實現與體現(em-bodied)」
[17],限制我們說話和走路的,只是被建構出來的迷思,是可以被改變過來的。


[1] 〈世貿總幹事:全球逾二千組織登記示威 八千激進韓農年底襲港〉,《星島日報》,2005年 6月 14日,A2版。
[2] 〈直擊大本營韓農反世貿戰略曝光火攻會展玩自焚〉,《東周刊》,2005年11月30日,A16版。
[3] 梁文道:〈人家快要被燒死了,我們還在看戲〉,《明報》,2005年11月30日,A10。
[4] 劉細良:〈群眾運動的邏輯-韓農肢體劇場〉,《明報》,2005年12月16日,A40。
[5] 〈長今精神,港人動容〉,《東方日報》,2005年12月16日,A01
[6] 〈世貿騷亂〉,《明報》,2005年12月18日,A01-A05。
[7] 〈灣仔變戰場〉,《成報》,2005年12月18日,A01。
[8] 梁文道:〈人家快要被燒死了,我們還在看戲〉,《明報》,2005年11月30日,A10。
[9] 同上。
[10] 劉細良:〈群眾運動的邏輯-韓農肢體劇場〉,《明報》,2005年12月16日,A40。
[11] 同上。
[12] Michel Foucault, Discipline and punish: the birth of the prison, translated by Alan Sheridan, NY, Pantheon, 1977.
[13] Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World, translated by Helene Iswolsky, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1984.
[14] 黃金麟:《歷史、身體、國家-近代中國的身體形成1895-1937》,235頁,台北,聯經,2001。
[15] 許寶強:〈從國際歷史視野,理解世貿暴力〉,《明報》,12月23日,A31。
[16] 潘國靈:〈世貿會議讓港人開了眼界〉,《香港商報》,12月27日,B04。
[17] Pierre Bourdieu, ‘Belief and the Body’, The Body – A Reader, edited and introduced by Mariam Fraser and Monica Greco, p.89, London, Routledge, 2005.

Reconsider the construction of OP

This is the mid-term paper of GPA 3200 "Reading Political PhilosophyII: John Rawls, guided by Mr. Chow Po Chung

Reconsider the construction of Original Position in A Theory of Justice


A Theory of Justice by John Rawls has been the most classical work in the field of contemporary political and moral philosophy. In this book, Rawls tries to build a system of normative ethics in which justice is placed as the first virtue of social institutions and the problem of justice can be settled through the social contract instead of a total utility maximizing utilitarianism. This leads to his two famous principles of justice: The Greatest Equal Liberty Principle and the Difference principle.

Rawls aims to construct a workable and systematic moral conception to oppose dominant utilitarianism and intuitionism by giving a more persuasive and comprehensive account of justice. Since there are too many complicated and morally irrelevant conditions like natural and social contingencies in the real world, he justifies his two principles by a hypothetical original position (OP). Everyone is allowed to experience this purely hypothetical experiment. And because the conditions of OP, in accordance with Rawls, is fair, weak and widely shared, any agreement derived from this initial status quo would be purely procedurally just. It is found that the individuals in OP would only choose Rawls’ theory of justice as fairness to be their ‘contract’. As a result, the hypothetical choice chosen is the representation of consent. Differs from traditional contract theories, the relevant agreement is not to enter a given society or to adopt a given form of government, but to accept certain moral principles. Thus he succeeded in bringing a more general and universal view of moral concepts in subverting the utilitarian palace.

In this paper, I attempt to reconsider the elements and features of OP, which is the most important concept in Rawls’ theory. Although he insists again and again that his design of the initial status is formed by commonly shared presumptions which enables fair bargains and a just rational choice to be carried out, I believe that there is a need to reexamine and question the reasonableness, neutrality and fairness of conditions of OP. My point of view is that, OP put forwarded by Rawls is strongly biased to a degree which even does not allow its rational individuals to choose fairly. To begin with, I start by giving a better picture of the components of OP.

John Rawls’ Original Position

In the book, OP is defined as ‘a status quo in which any agreements reached are fair, It is a state of affairs in which the parties are equally represented as moral persons and the outcome is not conditioned by arbitrary contingencies or the relative balance of social forces.’[1] To achieve this aim, he has created a highly specific and peculiar environment. In section 25 of A Theory of Justice, Rawls has given us a summary of the descriptions of his OP. However, I deem that it is not convenient for me to follow his arrangement to give elaboration in this short paper. Therefore, I adopt Shi Yuankang’s classification of the elements in OP for ease.[2]

According to Shi, we may divide the elements into subjective one and objective one. Subjective conditions are the depictions of the parties and individuals in making the contract; Objective conditions, on the other hand, describe those conditions other than subjective one.

For subjective conditions, we may analyze how the individuals involved look like in OP from the angle of motivation, knowledge and beliefs, and rationality. First, the contractors are mutually disinterested in motivation. They try to advance their system of ends as far as possible. The contractors attempt to win the highest index of primary goods which is the foundations of their conceptions of goods. They are not intrigued by other people’s interests. Use Rawls’ words, ‘they just strive for as high an absolute score as possible’[3]; second, the contractors are covered by a veil of ignorance in which most of the particular facts are not acknowledged. Situated behind the veil, the contractors do not have any idea of their place, social status, intelligence, strengthen and most importantly, their conception of the good. The only particular facts they know is the general facts about human society. They also know that their society is subject to the circumstances of justice and whatever this implies; third, individuals are rational and thereby willing to take effective means to ends with unified expectations and objective interpretation of probability.[4] Finally, they will not be envious of their counterparts in OP.

For the objective conditions, Rawls introduces Hume’s conditions of moderate scarcity. OP is a ‘circumstances of justice’ in which ‘persons put forward conflicting claims to the division of social advantages under conditions of moderate scarcity’[5] Resources are scarce to fulfill everyone’s absolute wants but enough for individuals to corporate in order to gain more advantages.[6]

Under this highly restricted hypothetical situation, according to Rawls’ argument, principles of justice for the basic structure would be chosen. The first principle concerns the distribution of liberty which ensures that each person has an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a like liberty for others; the second principle focuses on the distribution of social primary goods such as income, wealth and opportunities…etc. which is a necessary basis for further an individual’s particular conception of the good. Base on this principle, social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are (a) to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, and (b) attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality and opportunity. And these principles have to be followed by the rule of priority of liberty and priority of justice over efficiency and welfare in lexical order. Violations of any of these principles and rules are to be seen as injustice. ‘They are the principles that free and rational persons concerned to further their own interest would accept in an initial position of equally as defining the fundamental terms of their association’[7]. Therefore, the principles are the rational unanimous choice of the parties which provide the individuals a basic condition to realize different further interests.

Here I have given a very short introduction of the essential features and characteristics of OP. In building up his fair initial status quo, John Rawls gives every element a clear reason to support. It is too complicated to discuss here in detail. In essence, his selection of elements aims to represent equality between human beings as moral persons and to make OP as simple, weak and fair as possible by ignoring those factors morally irrelevant from the standpoint of justice. As we know, preferences of individuals are so divergent that they would not voluntarily agree on a common set of principles, and there are many pre-situated conventions and moral principles in real life which affect our judgments in making choices. Since what Rawls wants to find out is the moral common ground of the contractors with the aim to create a fair base of bargaining, characteristics like veil of ignorance thus ensure that everyone is similarly situated and thereby no one is able to design or tailor a principle favor to his particular conception of the good.

Reconsider the biased assumption

Since the goal of this paper is to contemplate the ‘fair and widely shared’ assumptions of OP by Rawls, I shall not elucidate more about the procedure and factors of choosing the principles. In the following, I am going to point out that the presumptions of the initial status quo employed by Rawls are quite strong. It is biased for ensuring his principles to be the only singled choice by the parties.

Rawls holds the view that,

‘To justify a particular description of the initial situation one shows that it incorporate these commonly shared presumptions. One argues from widely accepted but weak premises to more specific conclusions. Each of the presumptions should be itself by natural and plausible; some of them may seem innocuous or even trivial…’[8]
Corresponding to these believes, the veil of ignorance obtains to ‘rule out those principles that it would be rational to propose for acceptance, however little the chance of success, only if one knew certain things that are irrelevant from the standpoint of justice.[9] Thus the veil provides a reasonable ground for preventing the parties’ cognitions of their social status, gender, class, race and natural endowments since they are morally irrelevant from the standpoint of justice and would create conflicts which make the matters more complex. But it is questionable for the OP’s deprivation of the knowledge of the parties’ particular conception of the good. First, it seems that one’s conception of the good is not morally irrelevant from the standpoint of justice. Since the restrictions imposed on the OP can only be justified in terms of the conceptions of the good.[10] There is no impartial neutrality in constructing the initial situation.

Second, as Thomas Nagel once argued, even if someone favor certain principles stemmed from his or her own conception of the good, that individual will not be seeking any special advantages in the process of bargaining since he does not know who he or she is in the OP.[11] If Rawls intends to make everyone similarly ‘situated’ only, mere deprivation of other knowledge and particular facts seem to be very enough. We cannot say that the OP is ‘fair’ and ‘objective’ by taking away the conception of the good. It is because ‘difference’ is the most important part in compromising any contract and agreement made among the parties. We cannot say it is ‘objective’ by simply depriving different conception of the good which is the core of an individual in making his or her decision. I will give more elucidation for this argument below. In fact, what John Rawls attempts to do is to ensure his egalitarian liberalistic principles to be the only rational choice by the parties in the OP. Thus the OP is not a neutral theory but a liberal and individualistic construction.

Apart from the specific deprivation of the conception of the good which results in a strong inclination to egalitarian liberalism[12], the general design of the veil of ignorance also helps in slapping down utilitarianism. David Lyons points out that ‘Rawls make the selection of principles easier by stipulating that the original position have certain additional features, which seem to restrict the applicability of the principles initially chosen and affect the comparison with utilitarianism.’[13] For instance, the contractors are allowed to know that they can benefit from social corporation and they need some ways of adjudicating claims upon social goods.[14] This, in accordance with Lyons, incurs the people to ignore some extreme cases in which questions justice can arise, and force us to overlook a utilitarian view of these cases.[15] R. M. Hare has also shared a brief view in Rawls’ soundless avoidance of utilitarianism by the ‘thick veil of ignorance’ in the OP. Rawls says that the parties discount likelihood arrived at solely on the basis of the principle of insufficient reason in which all possibilities are taken as equally probable in the absence of any information.[16] Because of the refusal of this principle and deprivation of the most particular facts, Rawls, Hare believes that, succeeded in preventing the parties from making predictions of their fare from the OP to the ordinary world, thus hindering their orientation to utilitarianism.[17]

I have questioned the ‘fair’ and ‘neutral’ conditions of the OP in the above paragraphs. I regard the initial status quo brought up by Rawls a strongly egalitarian liberalistic biased original position in which utilitarianism is on a very unfavorable stand. Yet this is not the end. We may go even further by pointing out that John Rawls actually does not give the parties a chance to make choice. The design of the OP guarantees the morality outcome to be Rawls’ principles and the parties involved are not the choice makers but a seer.
Rawls tells us that,

‘I do not claim for the principles of justice proposed that are necessary truths or derivable from such truths. A conception of justice cannot be deduced from self-evident premises or conditions on principles; instead, its justification is a matter of mutual support of many considerations, of everything fitting together into one coherent view’[18]

There are two things we have to bear in mind. First, the agreement made in the OP is a contract after rational bargain by the parties in a pure procedural just circumstance but not a self-evident conception. There are alternative principles proposed besides justice as fairness in the OP as an expository device. Words like ‘choice’, ‘contract’, ‘agreement’ and ‘bargain’ show the emphasis of plurality, agency and distinctiveness of individuals. The above quotation actually embodies these spirits of Rawls. And this is also the superiority of Rawls’ principles over utilitarianism since his main critique on the latter is its ‘extension of the principle of choice for one man’[19]. However, as what Michael Sandel contends, bargaining in any sense requires some differences in the interests or preferences or power or knowledge of the bargainers, but in the original position, there are none.[20] Everyone is behind the veil of ignorance and whether they have any agency and freedom can be doubted. As a result, any agreement produced is guaranteed to be fair, not because the situation is purely procedural just but because the stipulation of OP has guaranteed a particular and predictable unanimous moral outcome. This is the reason why Sandel has once indicated that the contract in the OP is not an agreement with a person with respect to a proposition but an agreement to a proposition only.[21] The interpretation of the OP is not a voluntary one but a cognitive one. ‘The secret to the original position – and the key to its justificatory force – lies not in what they do there but rather in what they apprehend there. What matters is not what they choose but what they see…’[22]

Conclusion

In this paper, I have questioned the neutrality and fairness of Rawls’ OP which is the foundation of his theory of justice. I deem that it is not, as Rawls believed that, widely shared, weak and commonly agreed but greatly prejudiced for ensuring his wanted moral product to be derived. Alternatives like utilitarianism do not compete with Rawls’ justice as fairness on the same line but on an inferior position. We may even question whether the space for making choices and contracts exists or not.

With the above weaknesses I have mentioned, no matter what, it can not be questioned that John Rawls’ A Theory of Justice is the most influential and classical work in the history of political and moral philosophy. I do think that Nagel’s comment on this book is a good ending of this paper.

‘The outlook expressed by this book is not characteristics of its age, for its neither pessimistic nor alienated nor angry nor utopian. Instead it conveys something that today may seem incredible: a hopeful affirmation of human possibilities.’[23]

[1] John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Harvard, 1999), p. 104.
[2] 石元康, 《羅爾斯》(廣西師範, 2004), p. 72.
[3] John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Harvard, 1999), p. 125.
[4] Ibid, p. 127.
[5] John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Harvard, 1999), p.110.
[6] The ‘circumstance of justice’ is the normal condition under which human corporation is both possible and necessary. See Ibid, p. 109.
[7] Ibid, p.10.
[8] Ibid, p.16.
[9] Ibid, p.17.
[10] Thomas Nagel, ‘Rawls on Justice’, The Philosophical Review, Vol. 82, No.2. (Apr., 1973), p.227.
[11] Ibid, p.226.
[12] Ibid, p.222.
[13] See David Lyons, ‘Rawls versus Utilitarianism’, Chandran Kukathas ed. Rawls (Routledge, 2003), p.283. The aim of his article is to reveal that the unfair comparison of principle of justice and utilitarianism results in no significantly different practical implication outside the OP. Since I simply choose Lyon’s analysis of the OP’s stipulation, the words ‘seem to restrict the applicability of the principle initially chosen…’ can be neglected here.
[14] John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Harvard, 1999), Pp. 109-112.
[15] David Lyons, ‘Rawls versus Utilitarianism’, Chandran Kukathas ed. Rawls (Routledge, 2003), p.283.
[16] John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Harvard, 1999), p.146.
[17] R. M. Hare, ‘Rawls’ Theory of Justice - II’, The Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 23, No. 92. (Jul., 1973), p.246.
[18] John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Harvard, 1999), p.19.
[19] Ibid, p.21.
[20] Michael Sandel, Liberalism and the limits of Justice (Cambridge, 1998), p.129.
[21] Ibid, p.130.
[22] Ibid, p.130-132.
[23] Thomas Nagel, ‘Rawls on Justice’, The Philosophical Review, Vol. 82, No.2. (Apr., 1973), p.234.

星期六, 4月 01, 2006

結他聲
Emmylou Harris的A love that will never grow

終於看了 “斷背山”, 我也來湊兩句咀

用某位朋友的xanga的語言, 我可算是 “不知不覺的流下淚了”

這次沒有帶上文化理論的眼鏡看這部電影. 或者, 不知道, 可能是這套電影的魔力已經把眼鏡溶掉了. 聽說網上有許多文本分析, 意義解讀, 我實在不想以什麼男姓 / 白人 / 西方 / 中產中心主義去看它. 對我來說, 它的意義遠超過這些. 其實, 那座斷背山, 雖說是人人也有, 卻不是人人也feel到, 特別在香港這個娛樂社會. 一套電影, 在一個如此保守的社會背景下, 一個如此磨人的愛情悲劇, 一個沉重得不能再沉重的故事, 竟然還可以引起戲院觀眾的笑聲 (可能因為這不是BC), 還有雜誌報紙的 “斷背前, 斷背後”, 不知道究竟還有什麼人生故事可以在香港不被視為entertainment. (其實我不應surprise, 香港人連韓農也可當作花邊來看, 怎會認真去看這套電影)

我覺得, 要明白這套電影呈現那種社會現實的壓力, 重新發掘那在心中一直潛藏已久斷背山, 用不著一定有一些不容社會允許的經驗. 只要本身曾經歷人生虛無的感覺, 曾對浮華的娛樂式現實有感到厭惡, 也會明白那heavy的感覺. 當然, 這只是我個人as一個二十二歲的年青人我的個人觀感而已.

Body

在牛棚劇場看了梵谷的 “世界末日的倒數”

Body Politics說, 我們的思想規劃了我們身體的活動範圍和表演模式; 後在梵谷的戲劇導賞中, 聽到另一個version, 身體的姿勢是如何形構作家的思想. 原來一個屈著腰創作的人, 會寫一個老人的文字 (這是他的說法, 我試過但不能成功)

第一次看這類型的劇, 感覺新鮮但沉悶, 中途睡了數分鐘. 我看不懂演員的肢體語言. 幸好聽了導賞, 否則完全不明作家的意圖 (現在估到三成左右).

文字是有生命的, 這是我一直聽了很久但不能深信的. 梵谷說, 當我們看回自己的舊作, 會發覺文字是如此陌生, 彷彿是另一個人寫似的, 就似是看他/她人的作品.

於是, 我終於信了 / 被說服了

這一刻寫的文字, 除了最後呈現在讀者面前那些, 還有曾經被我們delete了又復原了又delete的 “文字”, 這是作者本身混亂思緒的其中一部份, 但最後被隱藏 / 刪去. 呈現的文字, 隱藏的 “文字”, 都是這一刻的 “我” 所寫的

現在, 我看回那些一年級的功課, 心想 “咁既野都寫得出?!” 那是因為, 我已經忘記了文字背後那些 “文字”. 呈現的文字是永恆的, 隱藏的文字的轉眼即逝, 永不能重新發掘.

跟上面的東西無關, 做功課時看到Thomas Nagel對Theory of Justice的其中一句評語 “The outlook expressed by this book is not characteristic of its age, for it is neither pessimistic nor alienated nor angry nor sentimental nor utopian. Instead it conveys something today may seem incredible: a hopeful affirmation of human possibilities.

上了數個星期課, 其實我也有同樣的感覺.

星期五, 3月 03, 2006

走向共和

星期日早上, 看完第六十集走向共和

忽然間, 很失落, 這是電視劇的魔力, 看二十集TVB也會依依不捨啦, 何況它?

它的結果, 跟中國的歷史一樣, 令人很失落. 久久不能平復.

那天周保松說, 看完, 會感慨, 原來一百多年前, 宋教仁他們的憲政討論, 是已經這樣深入的了. 國會, 總理, 總統, 投票…這些字眼, 對當代的中國人來說, 是多遙遠啊! 但, 原來歷史曾經給過中國人機會, 能成為民主國家; 只是, 我們選擇了共產政治; 原來, 楊度, 宋教仁, 梁啟超等知識份子曾經一起為國家賣力, 還有唐紹儀他們一班留美幼童, 歷史曾給機會他們踏上政治舞台; 不過, 最後, 我們選擇了農民政治, 還有一班清華工程系的畢業生.

1969年, Hayden White創了影視史學 (historiophoty) 一詞, 指涉以影像為文本的史學, 以相對傳統以文字為主的史學 (historiography). 兩者之間的分別, 我在今次的近代史之旅, 嘗得透了. 歷史教科書的一句 “北洋海軍於威海全軍覆沒”, 不及那驚心動魄的十五分鐘戰爭場面, 原來戰情不是一面倒的; 袁世凱也不是想像中差, 他曾有兩次機會稱帝, 也放棄了, 最後一次, 反而被昆了復辟, 了結自己的政治生涯. 在影像之中, 一切死硬而簡化的文字, 復活成有血有淚的歷史人物. 那些讀書時想不明白的東西, 也一下子明了. 明白為什麼有人會愚蠢得復辟, 明白為什麼有人如此固執, 這不是歷史人物的愚昧, 而是歷史書把他 / 她們都變得愚昧了, 假使我在那個環境, 也會做起一樣的事來. 這一刻, 歷史不是故事, 而是真真正正的human past, 能夠和當下精神共融的human past.

星期日, 2月 26, 2006

放flames有感

最近在Inmedia和劉保的xanga都有 “放flames不留名” 的事件的發生, 然後出現很多數千字的留言.

雖然完全不關我事, 不過看完後者有點感覺. 記得自己一二年級的時候, 還因為自己讀文化研究沾沾自喜. 這令我想起去年暑假Rey Chow那個conference, 討論香港的人文學學生, 有些學者說香港的人文學是被邊緣化, 羅貴祥則爆了一句, 或許讀人文學的, 總是喜歡被邊緣化. 我覺得這句話講得很好. 在普遍的大眾想像中, 讀人文學和社會科學的人, 實在是比其他學科的人有型浪漫的, 以我自己的經驗 (我不敢說人人也是), 這種stereotype很容易使我們不能自拔, 在三年內 (甚至從此以後) 永遠沉醉於這種因處邊緣而自覺清高的幻想之中 (例如: 見到什麼事都用理論解釋來嚇人, 認為一些不懂自己學科的人很無知, 覺得應該追隨某大學問家的態度). 如果是一個向來摺埋的學生還沒有什麼; 但那些很熱衷於express自己的 (如我), 則往往在言談中流露一種自以為 “繼承學術 / 先賢理念” 的態度.

總之是三年級啦, 也不知道是什麼原因, 忽然覺得自己很沒用, 覺得這種心態反而限制了自己生命的可塑性, 現在回想起來, 可能是因為畢業搵工的壓力, 大家都要在市場中爭飯吃了, 那管你是不是張愛玲本雅明, 總言之就要apply MT. 讀學術學系的浪漫人, 跟那些被我們經常看輕的 “實用學系”的學生, 都變成一樣的人了, 被削平了 (market的偉大). 於是我想, 從前, 為了背負 “文化研究” 這個名字, 把我的腦袋塞滿了文化理論和一些被認為是 “cultural” 的東西, 其實是浪費了自己的空間; 而去違背自己做一些 “文化人” 做的事, 也跟一個在清水灣電視城的追星fans無分別(而很有可能他 / 她們比你還清楚自己在做什麼), 只不過那個明星變了一個思想家而已, 得到的思想全是空洞的, 不是屬於自我的.

於是我在想, 我人生的路應該是如何走呢? 我覺得這個問題很重要, 不對, 應該是最最重要, 因為我一生不停要做的, 就是選擇, 而沒有路向, 我是不會如何作選擇的. 直到現在, 我還沒有一條較清晰的formula, 一條屬於自己的formula (用來make choice的formula), 不過, 有些很基本的字, 是確立了的: 尊重 “人” (他人, 她人, 人); 即使有時難免受到些意識形態的影響, 也要堅持到最後一刻才放棄 (例如, 雖然我在外國見到一個印巴藉人士, 都會覺得佢地會打我劫, 但也盡量在腦內與這些外在強加的思想交戰); 對自己清楚知道要做的事執著, 對不清楚的就算了; 做什麼事也好, 知道自己做什麼是最重要的.

如是者, 有了這幾條basic principles, 一些困擾了二十年的事, 好像有八成以上也搞清了. 個世界 / 人好似豁然開朗, 就算你說我扮型, ok, 我是知道自己扮型的, 因為我由此得到滿足; 你說我只顧摺埋, 也沒有所謂, 天性就是喜歡如此. 在這個情況下, 即使不能完全消滅那些stereotypes, 你也用太極拳法把它們的力消解了, 餘下的那部份, 就是自己了. 文化研究這四個字, 對確立真正的自我, 已經沒有意思了, 自我是真正的, raw的, original的 (三個字也沒有大分別吧 :p), 但有社會面向, 會有外在思想影響, 如 “隨波逐流”, 為英皇娛樂的明星仔女發狂, 看八卦雜誌和咸網. (注: 例子可換成一些被認為是 “好” 的東西, 當你刻意走去圖書館睇學術書, 而唔係由心而發自己想, 或者其實不知自己在做什麼, 其實也是跟看八掛雜誌一樣), 但根據自己的principles, 對這些不執著, 因為這不是重要的, 而我也不能做到完全不隨波遂流, 是盲目, 就讓他盲目吧, 因為這個 “盲目”, 不是我為了盲目而盲目, 而是自然由心而發的盲目.

這些都是我在大學領悟到最寶貴的 (注意, 不是學, 是領悟). 我覺真係關大學事, 唔係吹捧佢.

星期五, 1月 13, 2006

Street Market

星期天早, 跟父母到北河街街市.

對深水步 (我不想打兩字結合體, 暫用這字吧!) 的認識還不是很深. 能令我聯想到的, 是北河街德和燒味樓上的春天花花幼稚園, 鴨僚街的平貨, 西九龍中心, 還有人人都去過的黃金商場.

頂層是熟食中心, 有約十家茶餐廳共用一個場. 我們選了最入那一家, 叫 “東記”. 那老闆娘勤奮, 東奔西跑的. 但其實沒有什麼客人. 她用不純正的廣東話跟我們說 “我們這裡的東西真是最新鮮的”. 她的公仔面, 是全場唯一有白菜的. 老闆娘從前在對面很旺的 “大利” 打了十年工, 知道它愛用隔夜的料. 叫我們多點幫襯. 她說, “可惜我們太 “入”, 但, 幫襯我們都是西裝客和食環署的人啊!” 沾沾自喜的道.

街市很污糟. 但很喜歡那些人聲人氣. 每檔老闆大聲叫賣, 或跟師奶討價還價; 價錢牌都是發泡膠, 用紅色的雙頭筆寫上 “白菜 – x蚊一斤”, 很多時會寫上錯別字, 或者是老闆剛升上中學的兒子替他/她們寫的, 或者是已經用了很多年的; 店的名字很普通, 或是老闆的名字, 或是老闆的姓, 不是 “生記” 就是 “強記”. 但阿生一定認識阿強, 如果他們不是朋友, 就應該曾經為爭客而打過交, 或者一同去過房署抗議減租, 跟同一個社工傾過計. 他/她們也應該是讀一家小學, 或者是同一區, 鬥做優質學校死對頭的兩家小學.

師奶阿婆愛用自己的 “車仔”, 菜籃, 但又一定要用紅白膠裝, 否則屋企搵咩做垃圾袋?

這是一個街市, 又是街又是市

這只是深水步的一角啊.

從Market到Street Market到Supermarket, 我們多了一個super, 但少了條街.

星期一, 1月 02, 2006

2006快樂

設計歷法的人真偉大, 把 “時間” 一個如此抽象的concept變成數字. 假使這個世上沒有年月日的概念, 時間不停的指向前, 我們的感覺會有多虛無啊. 我們不知道活在世上多久, 無法總結過去, 更加無法指向未來. 好比一個馬拉松的跑手不停的跑呀跑, 但不知道什麼時候開始, 什麼時候才到終點. 很容易會變成真的歷史上那個真的希臘勇士, 跑完之後死了. 設計歷法的人, 把馬拉松的跑道畫好, 變成了圓形的運動場. 跑畢四百米, 那條起跑線 / 衝線, 就是 “年” 了. 工作人員會打那個鈴鼓, 於是, 跑的人知道什麼時候留力, 還有多少路程就需要發力.

在人生的意義上, 我覺得 “年” 比 “日”, “月” 等其他單位都重要. “分秒”, 關於一些速度的事. 比如做一個決定, 股票買賣和做考試卷都是 “分秒必爭”; “日月” 基本上無所不包, “紀念性” 的事和例行公事也有: 每月做糧, 兩個月暑假, 節日. 但它的含意似乎沒有深刻性. “年”, 跟人生是最密切的. 我們的年齡, 標誌著我們的人生歷史之餘, 也告訴我們還有多少時間待在這個世界. 我今年二十有一, 以現今的科技, 如果幸運沒有什麼意外, 應該還有五六十年命, 這些都是由 “年” 做單位計出來的. 人生永遠是由 “年” 來總結的, 也由 “年” 來開始計算. 沒有人說 “我經歷了失敗 / 成功的一月 / 日, 但每年也有X十億人說渡過了好 / 壞的一年, 而且一定展望新一年的好開始. 至於 “世紀”, 就是全人類的事情, 跟個人沒有什麼關係, 或者跟少部份研究歷史的學者有關.

除夕除了慶祝, 也讓每個人有 “翻身” 的機會, 重新好好思量一下自己過去做過什麼, 將來又要做什麼. 假使沒有一年之末 / 始, 返工的還是在返工, 上學的仍然是上學, 玩樂的仍然在玩樂, 有誰會想及自己的人生? 所以, Cast Away的Tom Hanks要在石頭上刻上日期, 不要讓自己忘卻人生, 進入荒島的自然世界.

在一年的最後一天看卡爾維諾 “宇宙連環圖” (對, 仲係呢本), 看到最後的十多頁, 看到一句, 挺合我們這個年紀用的.

(螺旋體Qfwfq說) 我那時的條件是豐富的, 自由的, 滿意的, 跟你們想像的條件截然相反. 我是單身漢 (那時的生產繁殖連短暫的交配都不太需要), 健康而沒有過份的奢求. 一個人年輕時, 全部進化之路都為你敞開, 同時也可以盡情享受軟體動物在礁石上那樣平平的濕濕的美美的滋味. 跟後來的種種限制相比, 想到只有一種形態而排除其他所有形態, 這樣的單調固定最後會覺得自己被陷住了, 我真會說還是那時的生活最美好.

星期二, 12月 06, 2005

超市反動

朋友J跟她的女朋友C逛超市. 看見一個牌寫著 “鮮宰本地牛肉”. 朋友驚訝超市竟然有鮮宰的本地貨, 上前一看, 是一包包以牛肉為主打的湯包. 即是, 一些以發泡膠作底, 保鮮紙作面, 把一堆肉和一堆料塞在一起的新鮮健康包, 專for生活節奏急速的健康都市人. 如果不去camp / 行山 / BBQ, 朋友很少到超市. 這次一行, 提醒了他, 超市在數年前已經開始擴大產品範圍, 到現在幾達 “無所不包” 的階段. 從前, 覺得超市出現燒味檔和鮮魚行很出奇; 現在, 發現非基因新鮮食品, 倒成為出奇事.

朋友的父母愛吃雞, 特別是街市的活雞, 經由大嬸吹過雞屎忽脫過毛的活雞. 但是, 他們的兒子卻吃不出父母說的那種 “鮮味”. 朋友分不出 “活雞” 和 “雪雞”. 朋友的女朋友也是. 朋友說, 可能這是我們這一代吃的文化. 因為我們吃鮮雞的經驗不夠父母多, 所以分辨不了 (當然我們之中也有人做到). 但是, 朋友心裡其實很想有分辨鮮雪的能力. 因為他確信新鮮的比雪的好, 只是自己的舌頭不靈.

下一代吃的文化, 跟我們這一代, 又會有什麼分別? 朋友雖然分不出雞味, 卻分得出包裝燒肉與街市燒肉之別, 也喜歡鮮湯多予味精湯. 如果這一代是吃雪的, 包裝的, ready-made的, 翻叮的食物長大, 他們的舌頭, 應該會被我們更加遲鈍. 原來食物跟政治一樣, 面對強權, 是這麼無力, 完全不能preserve一套傳統. 超市要賣, 哪會有街市? 歷史要改, 哪會有人阻止得了? 城市要發展, 哪會有人停得了? 這就是歷史的發展過程了, 這就是進步, 這就是往前看. 朋友, 還有朋友department的朋友, 還有女朋友的朋友, 還有朋友的朋友, 一班志同道合的朋友, 都是社會上的一小群人. 他們的行為, 都是小眾反動. 所謂的保護傳統, 只是這班小人物對自己喜歡的東西過於依戀. 超市都東西, 還不是一樣的吃? 城市, 都是一樣的住. 歷史, 也是一樣的學. 從來都是與時並進.

但, 即使朋友的兒子吃不到鮮的, 朋友也堅持要他的下一代懂得鮮雪之分. 因為, 保持味覺, 是最後的抵抗.

星期四, 11月 24, 2005

後殖民翻譯的權力與政治 - 重新反思魯迅的翻譯概念

此乃UGC128B 翻譯史的學期論文, 導師為邱偉平博士

「如果你只是草草學懂一門語言,以為翻譯就是傳送內容而把別的什麼東西給了讀者,那麼你便是背叛了文本,且透露了頗為可疑的政治含義。」

- 斯皮瓦克〈翻譯的政治〉[1]

「語言改革臻至善之境時,革命也就完成了。新語就是英社而英社就是新語」

- 歐威爾《1984》[2]


翻譯是兩種不同文化的溝通模式。透過翻譯,一個社群的知識,可以被轉換成另一個社群的語言文字,豐富後者的文化內涵之餘,更促進整體人類的知識發展。正因為這個原因,翻譯經常被不加思索的認為是人類文化之間的橋樑,甚至可以幫助人類消除因差異所致的誤會。交流知識和文化所造成的喜悅,使人只專注於翻譯的優點,而忘記了它的盲點 - 翻譯語言間隱含的權力。

在「翻譯」的旗幟下,語言經常被認為是透明的載體,當中的政治性,很容易被譯者和翻譯語言的「中立性」抹去。其實,語言和文化互生互滅,互相帶動。在一般人的眼中,語言是文化的載體,一個社群的文化意義被寄存於它的語言當中;但語言直接創造文化這個功能,卻往往被遺忘了。新字舊詞的交替,形構了文化的邊界,在決定意義的同時影響我們對這個世界的感知。而語言的創造和運用,也不是中立的;相反,這個過程非常政治性,而且充滿權力的影響。

二十世紀初的中國,除了面對列強入侵,內部自身也充滿不穩。有關直譯/意譯,歐化/白話等等的翻譯論爭,因為急劇變動的環境而變得更加複雜。魯迅曾經分別與梁實秋、瞿秋白和趙景深討論翻譯語言的問題。他以「直譯」,甚至「硬譯」作為手段,「歐化文」作為工具,希望翻譯實踐把新知識引進中國之餘,改革中國文字,最終塑造出全新的中國文化。這套翻譯理論,得到當時不少知識份子的支持。以下,我將檢視魯迅的翻譯理論,並把它從新文化運動中的中國,放到另一個語境 - 回歸後的香港。我將指出,魯迅的翻譯觀,在傳入「新的表意法」的同時,也不自覺地成為殖民者的幫凶,把後者的意識形態灌進被殖者的語言之中;在後殖民時代,解殖過程中的「直譯」更把帝國的思想改頭換面,在前殖民地繼續保持其影響力。值得注意的是,本文的目的,並不是否定魯迅在翻譯上的取向,而是反思權力和翻譯的關係。世上沒有放諸四海皆準的道理,一切都需要考慮語境和權力。

魯迅的翻譯觀:以「歐化文」作「硬譯」

「…為甚麼不完全中國化,給讀者省些力氣呢?…我的答案是:這也是譯本。這樣的譯本,不但在輸入新的內容,也在輸入新的表現法。」

- 魯迅[3]

隨著新文化運動的展開,國內的討論話題亦從「自強」轉為「改革」。翻譯家的任務不再是「師夷之長技以制夷」,而是幫助「德先生」與「賽先生」「打倒孔家店」。作為改革運動的代表人物,魯迅寫了很多雜文,翻譯了很多外國文學,批判舊文化之餘,引進西方思潮以改革國人的「封建」思想。在翻譯方法上,魯迅主張「直譯」,甚至「硬譯」;翻譯語言則取「歐化文」。這種翻譯策略,可以破除狹義的「本國語中心觀」,打破翻譯中那一道自我限制的圍牆[4]。在回覆瞿秋白的書信中,魯迅曾說:

中國的文或話,法子實在太不精密了,作文的秘訣,是在避去熟字,刪掉虛字,就是好文章,講話的時候,也時時要詞不達意,這就是話不夠用,所以教員講書,也必須借助於粉筆。[5]

魯迅跟德國思想家本雅明 (W. Benjamin)和翻譯學家韋奴蒂 (L. Venuti)的翻譯觀相近。他們都主張譯文的「異域化」 (foreignization),由此把非本國族的語法文字引入本國語言體系,建立更開放、自由和有活力的語言形態。[6]魯迅翻譯的時候,遇到明顯和漢語語法格格不入的外語句子,就「文句仍然是直譯,和我歷來所取的方法一樣…大抵連語句的前後次序也不甚顛倒。」[7]甚至以外語的規則反過來規範漢語。魯迅的方法,就是梁實秋謂的「硬譯」。

在翻譯語言的問題上,魯迅的觀點則和瞿秋白有所分歧。在翻譯方法上,他們的取向是一致的。他們都意識到中國語言本身的不足,認為「直譯」可以幫助建立新的國語。瞿秋白便曾經說過,中國的語言不足得還未脫離「姿勢語」,翻譯可以為漢語加入新的字眼和新的句法[8];但是,基於政治的考慮,瞿秋白反對譯文語言的歐化。作為共產黨領導人,瞿秋白著眼的是語言的在群眾眼中的可讀性。語言文字愈易懂,無產階級的文藝革命就愈成功。再者,語言文字本身的大眾化和民主化 (也就是白話化),消除文字造成的階級差異,也符合共產主義的文藝理念。

作為一個左傾的自由思想家,魯迅關心的不但但是推翻固有的階級建制,還考慮到語言體系本身的靈活性和多元性。語言不是單單由單一階級決定的。由各個不同層面組成的「活的語言」,才是一個完整的語言系統。所以,魯迅反對單一的大眾白話文,鼓吹「四不像的白話」[9],由不同國語不同土話不同階級的共同組成一套白話。雖然這可能會造成「暫時的不順」[10],但白話公律會自動調節,淘汰修正不順的部份,從而測試出一套語言的最大限度,創造出一套最活,最健康的表意系統。

在國民精神急需改革的時代,魯迅的翻譯觀的確能夠肩負起重構文化的重任。一個排外封閉的符號系統,是死的,沒有生命力的。生活在一套這樣的語言當中,一個民族的思想和世界觀必然是貧乏的。魯迅意識到這個根本的問題,和他身處的時代有著密切的關係。晚清民初的中國,固步自封,的確有需要創造一個開放的環境。然而,把魯迅翻譯理論放在今天的香港,我們會很容易發現它的盲點。所謂的開放性、多元性和創造性,並不是單純正面的。以下將會加以闡釋。

權力的延續 - 「硬譯」與「歐化」的後殖民法律

「這八年來的工作,已迫使我習慣了接受以一些艱澀難懂的中文語法來保存英文要表達的法律意義,我已經被洗腦了。」

- 金聖華[11]

我們身處的時代背景,不比民初的中國簡單,甚至可以說更為複雜。魯迅的「硬譯」,在今天看來,成為了今天金聖華所言的「洗腦」。正如我在引言所指,語言從來就不是透明的載體,而翻譯語言更不是由一種語言「複製」成另一種語言。魯迅的「硬譯」和「歐化文」正面來說有助建立新中國思想;反過來說,它同時也是列強的幫凶,自己在意識形態的層面入侵中國文化。魯迅強調「信而不順」只是源於中國簡陋不足的語言,新的語言在經過修正後,最終會為人民帶來靈活多變的表意符號;卻忽視了這個「不順」,其實也是由於帝國主義對母語的破壞,強行參與建構民族的語言和身份。魯迅單單把翻譯視為語法和詞彙的進口,是過於簡化當中牽涉的權力關係。

在殖民地時代,香港以英語作為法定語言,即使一九七三年的「中文運動」成功爭取中文成為法定語言,中文的地位仍然是從屬於英文的。又,香港一直沿用英國傳入的普通法 (common law)。眾所周知,法律規範人的行為,故此,法律的書寫本應根據當地的社會文化編訂。例如,在馬來西亞,一對回教徒情侶在公眾場所牽手或行為親暱,會被宗教局的官員懲罰;回教徒在街上抽煙,會被罰款二千元[12];但在香港,以上的行為都不會被視作違法。所以,法律應該由當地的語言書寫,才會最合乎國情,最貼近民眾精神。然而,殖民者往往以宗主國的法律和當中涉及的語言操控殖民地。香港作為英國殖民地,也理所當然地採用英語和英國法律。

一九八四年,中英聯合聲明簽定,香港回歸中國已成定局,解殖工程乃悄悄展開。語言既是身份的建構工具,自然成為解殖的焦點。一九九七年後,母語教學,官方和法律語言的中文法都迅速實行。然而,簡單的英譯中根本不能擺脫殖民者的語言。香港的語言存在著「英文性」是不能否定的事實。我們經常聽到政府官員說「審慎樂觀」和「我看不到有可能…」這些話,便是「英文性」存在於中文的好例子[13]。在統治期間,宗主國的意識形態,潛藏在語言的背後,帝國的表意法,控制著殖民地子民的思維結構。

一九八八年,「雙語法例咨詢委員會」成立,把法律條文從英文翻譯成中文。原本這是個擺脫殖民者影響的大好時機,可以把一直以來強加於港人身上的英式規範破除,根據香港的社會環境,以本土語言書寫一套新法律,或者至少重新闡釋原有法律因東西文化差異所造成的灰色地帶,甚至減少「英文性」的殖民功效。但是,委員會卻選擇貼近沿有的法律條文,漠視香港的本土性,直譯固有的英式普通法。當時的委員除了自言被「洗腦」的金聖華外,還有當時的浸大校長謝志偉,他說:

「當英文原文的語句結構兜禿轉轉或在用詞上可能有含糊的時候,我們“委員會”也只能把它兜兜轉轉地譯成中文,不能修改,不作詮釋,甚至連原文含糊之處也要用相對地含糊的中文翻譯出來…」[14]

把法律從英文直譯至中文,並不能有效解殖。正如朱耀偉所言,「英文論述的中譯本根本無法避免被西方論述改變其運作模式…」[15]。不考慮當地社會環境的翻譯,只是把殖民者的一套思維複製,換上「本土性」的外衣。在法律層面上,這個情況更值得關注,因為「合理性」(reasonableness)是普通法一個常用的標準 (特別是刑事法),去證明某事件和證據是否存在。[16]純粹把條文直譯而不作詮釋,很容易跟隨殖民時代的「合理性」(即英國式的合理性) 作準則判決和量刑。在一九九五年的一宗案例,一名男子在未經女方的同意下,親吻其面頰,被裁判官判定「非禮」(indecent assault)罪名成立。後來被告上訴,英國的法官推翻原判,改判被告「普通摳打」(common assault)罪名成立,原因是男士親吻女士的臉並沒有不道德的成份。顯然,法庭以英國「合理性」作判案的依據,沒有考慮中國和香港的文化因素。[17]這件事證明,回歸後的法律系統中文化,沒有顧及細節裡的魔鬼。由於特區政府強調一切五十年不改變,法官仍然主要由外國人組成,而九七前的案例仍然會被參考引用。特區政府的法律解殖工程,因為失當的翻譯方法和語言,最終徒然。[18]

翻譯權力與政治的反思

魯迅所追求的譯文「異域化」,在動盪不安的中國,無異是救國救民的妙藥良方。但是,翻譯涉及的權力和政治,還有語境和語言的考慮,令我們不能單以「文化交流」或者「改革思想」這些好處,便隨便大力鼓吹「硬譯」和「歐化文」。本文把魯迅的翻譯概念,應用到一個完全不同的語境之中,目的就是要揭示翻譯的複雜性。翻譯不是簡單的語言置換,而是和文化互相影響,息息相關。在上述的例子,原本被認為是救亡革新的翻譯理論,一變成為後殖民者操控人民思想的表意工具,甚至使被殖民者成為斯皮瓦克 (G. Spivak)口中的「不能說話的屬僚」[19]。在全球化的時代,在選擇翻譯策略的時候,我們實在不能忽略社會,甚至國際政治文化的整體結構。在這個情況下,引孫歌的話,我們追求的,「並不僅僅是一種正確的理論,而同時更是一種對於現實問題的敏感,一種撕下假面和偽裝的能力」。[20]


參考書目

斯皮瓦克:〈翻譯的政治〉,許寶強、袁偉編:《語言與翻譯的政治》(Hong Kong, Oxford, 2000)
魯迅、瞿秋白:〈魯迅和瞿秋白關於翻譯的通信〉,劉靖之編:《翻譯論集》(香港三聯,1981)
劉少勤:《盜火者的足跡與心跡-論魯迅與翻譯》(南昌:百花州文藝,2004)
朱耀偉:《他性機器?香港後殖民文化論集》(青文,1998)
冼偉文,朱耀偉:《以法之名:後殖民香港法律文化研究》(學生書局,2000)
本雅明:〈翻譯家的任務〉,孫冰編《作品與肖像》(文?, 1999)
王宏志:〈“歐化”:“五四”時期有關翻譯語言的討論〉,謝天振編:《翻譯的理論建構與文化透視》(上海外語教育出版社,2000)
璧華編:《魯迅與梁實秋論戰文選》(香港天地圖書,1979)
佐治.歐威爾著,劉紹銘譯:《一九八四》(台灣:東大圖書,1991)
星州廣場http://mag.sinchew-i.com/scgc/index.phtml?vol=20050327&sec=A58

[1] 斯皮瓦克:〈翻譯的政治〉,許寶強、袁偉編:《語言與翻譯的政治》(Hong Kong, Oxford, 2000),268頁。
[2] 佐治.歐威爾著,劉紹銘譯:《一九八四》(台灣:東大圖書,1991)
[3] 魯迅:〈魯迅和瞿秋白關於翻譯的通信〉,劉靖之編:《翻譯論集》(香港三聯,1981),13頁。
[4] 劉少勤:《盜火者的足跡與心跡-論魯迅與翻譯》(南昌:百花州文藝,2004),184頁。
[5] 魯迅:〈魯迅和瞿秋白關於翻譯的通信〉,13頁。
[6] 有關韋奴蒂的翻譯觀,可參考他的文章〈翻譯與文化身份的塑造〉,中文版收於許寶強、袁偉選編:《語言與翻譯的政治》(Hong Kong, Oxford, 2000);本雅明的翻譯觀,則可參考孫冰編《作品與肖像》(文?, 1999)中〈翻譯家的任務〉一文。
[7] 劉少勤:《盜火者的足跡與心跡-論魯迅與翻譯》,187頁。
[8] 瞿秋白:〈魯迅和瞿秋白關於翻譯的通信〉,4頁。
[9] 魯迅:〈魯迅和瞿秋白關於翻譯的通信〉,15頁。
[10] 同上,14頁。
[11] 朱耀偉:《他性機器?香港後殖民文化論集》(青文,1998),122頁。
[12] 引自http://mag.sinchew-i.com/scgc/index.phtml?vol=20050327&sec=A58
[13] 朱耀偉:《他性機器?香港後殖民文化論集》,120頁。
[14] 同上,122頁。
[15] 同上,120頁。
[16] 冼偉文,朱耀偉:《以法之名:後殖民香港法律文化研究》(學生書局,2000),17-19頁。
[17] 同上,19-22頁
[18] 同上,23頁
[19] 原句為 “the subaltern cannot speak”(屬僚不能說話)。
[20] 許寶強、袁偉編:《語言與翻譯的政治》(Hong Kong, Oxford, 2000),xxxi頁。

星期六, 10月 29, 2005

就在kid與dult之間

Arnold van Gennep (1873-1957) 提出 “過渡期意識” (The rites of passage) 概念. 社會上每一個個體的的生命, 其實是一連串的過渡期. 由地方到A地方B, 由職業C到職業D, 由兒童到成人…一個組別到另一個組別. 當你由一個社會組別進入另一個的時候, 你會經歷三個階段, Separation, Transition和Incorporation. Transition的階段, 是最奇異的空間. 因為, 這個空間是處於社會既定的結構與結構, 組織與組織之間, 在界與界之間. 未融入新的社會空間, 但又已經離開了舊的. 所謂 “宅界”.

在這個過渡空間, 有最多的可能性發生. 因為我們不需要stick with兩個社會組織中心的神聖的道德規條. 人的自主, 在這個空間最能體現. 青年期就是兒童與成人間的過渡期, 不用做兒童應該做的事, 又未需要像成人的懂得一兩手social之道, 更不用為生計憂心. 所以我們最energetic, 最creative, 最反叛, 最有理想, 最有憧憬. 所有的可能性, 都盡在此處. 我忽然想到negative conception of liberty. 不同於positive liberty追求無限慾望代表愈多自由, negative的freedom令我們知道, 愈多為我們打開的門, 就代表愈自由, 愈多alternative, 我們的選擇就愈多, 也愈自由. 這個空間, 是最多negative freedom的地方.

李歐梵有一篇文叫 “世故與天真”, 說香港學生世故, 因為大家未畢業急著搵工; ,也天真, 因為我們的幼稚不足以當一個大學生. 我們確實是站在最多alternative的地方, 最能體現自由意志的空間, 亞洲最top的城市的大學. 但是, 我們沒有叛逆和創新這些 “過渡特徵”, 沒有找尋自己的自主理想, 只留下前一個stage的 “天真” 和後一個stage的 “世故”.

大學青年被兒童和成人的rules慢慢侵蝕了, 難道最後, 只留下kidult?

星期六, 10月 08, 2005

城市與small boy

“樓市怪談” 的場刊這樣寫著,

“一個城市的建築和城市設計, 反映了這個城市管治階層的價值觀和意識形態…香港愈來愈像一個監獄城市…街道消市了, 一個一個的商場, 一個一個的公屋居屋豪宅…以前街道式的生活空間, 街坊鄰里失去了, 沒有社區意識, 有的只是更多的監管…香港的舊區重建不是重建是消滅, 消滅的不只是建築物, 而是香港人的記憶與香港人的文化身份, 香港政府自覺或不自覺把香港變成八十年代的深圳…”

“香港的膚淺意識, 當權者的無知和反智, 完完全全可以從香港這個城市的建設和城市設計看得到, 而 “豪宅” 這個建築名詞才會是香港建設 “風格” 的一種常用詞.”

香港的樓市經濟文化, 認為城市空間單單是我們身體的載體, 不知道它其實直接影響我們思想品味文化的構成. 劇中有一段是印象很深的, 原來從前英國政府是以一條街作管治單位, 那條長長的彌敦道, 是一棵大樹的主幹. 慢慢, 那些百年老舖和新移民香港人白手興家的小食店愈開愈多, 這些枝節綠葉展開, 形成一個充滿人文風情的社區網絡. 幻想一下, 居民都對自己的地方很熟悉, 家庭主婦知道那裡買菜最便宜, 那些“佬”都聚在公園下象棋, 小孩子跟隔離的同學仔在附近跑來跑去捉迷藏, 還有玩二胡的老伯, 在批發出口店搶衫的師奶…

“街道” 也不只是通往目的地的空間, 它本身就是大眾人民的居所. 從前的街道,容許我們駐足, 拮兩串魚蛋燒賣, 或者偶然發現一兩間士多的雀檸是特別便宜的, 或者發現某間大排檔是特別多味精的. 每一條街, 每一個區都有一個故事.

今天, 引那套劇的話, 香港人心目中的理想家園是 “豪宅”, 要坐東向西背山面海360度維港海景環保露台千幾二千呎連會所有Spa有Gym地/機鐵上蓋二十分鐘到中環送極速寬頻名校網保值易升易放可以抄而且隨時樓換樓 (現在全部的豪宅, 即使在和合石 / 垃圾場隔離, 也會在廣告說有齊以上全部特徵). 政府把一大片一大片的地勾, 發展商一碌碌高樓的插 (在地下), 起些不倫不類意義空洞的地方名, 小枝幹都被趕盡殺絕了, 地產商是城市的真正管理人. 香港再沒有漫遊城市的flaneur, 只有波特萊爾詩中說的passer-by.

美國史上最偉大的建築師之一Louis Kahn被認為是建築界的哲學家. (聽綸O說胡恩威為Louis Kahn拍過一套劇的), 他說:

“The city is the place of availabilities. It is a place where a small boy, as he walks through it, may see something that will tell him what he wants to do his whole life”

城市不是一個為旅客而建的地方, 樓不是用來抄的, 也不是用來豪的. 城市是tells us what we want to do our whole lifes的家.

星期六, 9月 24, 2005

遊戲規則 上街人民主導

【明報專訊】作者為中文大學學生

七一前,曾特首民望高企,經濟轉好,明光社反對同志團體行頭而杯葛上街,陳日君(相關新聞 - 網站)不鼓勵天主教徒遊行等等的因素,令大家認為此次上街人數會大幅減少。結果,七一大遊行最後只有2萬人參與,甚至低於政府的預期,少得令人大跌眼鏡。

親政府團體巡遊的人數比七一上街還要多,但正當親政府人士為巡遊人數上的勝利而沾沾自喜,他們卻沒有意識到,遊戲規則已經被上街的人民主導了。從前親政府人士不用理會市民大眾,不用理會遊行,只需在電視機面前講一兩句便可。現在,他們也要在人數和宣傳上跟民陣打拼,然後公布人數和對方比較。

昨天的遊行包含了很多其他不同的訴求,也可能有很多人並不是以爭取普選為目標的。但是,不論如何,上街已經成為了表示對政府不滿的象徵符號。每年同月同日,統計上街和巡遊雙方的人數就是執政者收成績單的時候。過去兩年的七一,直接令高官下台,政策改變,間接令董建華(相關新聞 - 網站)下台。七一上街,是一個普選的代替品,代表你投票﹔上哪邊,就等於你投哪一邊的票。民陣遊行的票愈多,愈能有機會影響政府施政。

所以,七一的價值,並不是單單從人數和媒體宣傳量去衡量。無論它的主題如何不清晰,由什麼人帶頭,引起什麼內部糾紛也好,只要它能搞得成,就已經是成功。

夾縫間的殖民機器 - 論香港的語文教育

此乃 CRS 3001 "帝國主義、殖民主義與文化", 導師為黃慧貞教授

後殖民國家在語言教育上的抗爭一直是文化研究的重點。在許多亞洲和非洲國家的例子,語言抗爭的討論多是集中於以本土語言去抵抗殖民語言,又或是如何在全球化和維繫本土文化兩者之間取捨平衡。香港作為英國的殖民地,有關語文教育政策的爭論也一直沒有停止過。爭取成立中文中學的呼聲早在二十年代初便已經喊出,隨後香港大學成立中文系、大量中文中學的興起、中文大學的成立及七十年代的中文運動,都被認為是反殖反英的勝利。九七後,香港回歸祖國,當一般人認為語文將不再成為重要的議題之際,母語教學及最近中文大學國際化的事件,都證明語文教育並不是一個單單換了國旗和國歌就能解決的問題。

語言是文化和意義的載體,也是一個族群來認知世界的工具。它從來都不是透明的中介,每一個文字符號都充滿語用者的意識形態和價值。佔有語言,就意味著得到意義的主導權和文字的闡釋權。殖民者的文化,就是透過語言,堂而皇之的進入被殖者政治、經濟、文學以至生活每個細節和層次。而要佔有語言這個表意工具,教育就是殖民者和被殖者雙方互相爭奪的堡壘。成功控制教育,就能以它作為生產和傳播殖民意識的機器。故殖民地一般以母語教學作為解殖的重要手段。然而,香港的殖民及後殖歷史,牽涉到方言與國語,國家與地方,甚至東方與西方等非常複雜的問題。我想指出,香港的語文政策,由港英到特區時代,從來都不是為解殖及建構身份為目標,而是被當作生產殖民意識的機器。本文將重新檢視香港的近代史,進一步闡述香港的教學語言政策如何在兩個宗主國之間發展。


港英時代的殖民教育

「我們要教育那些不能被他們的母語教育的人。我們一定要教他們一些外語…即使在西方的語言中,這種語言也是最優秀的…」[1]

以上是一八三五年馬可尼勳爵 (Lord Macaulay) 在一個有關英國在印度推行英語教育的演講中很著名的一句話。作為全球最大的殖民帝國,這個日不落帝國在全球擴張它的意識形態時,是有一套法則的。英式學校制度和教學材料,加強了殖民地新一代的子民對殖民政府的服從。在馬可尼的倡議下,英國在印度培養了一批印度血統但思想英化的知識份子。西方人認為,殖民地的本地人不能以自己的語言表達自己,只有西方的語言和文化,才是最優越的。

香港和印度不同。無論在歷史、地理、血源和傳統上,香港都和中國大陸有密不可分的關係,兩者難以割難。再者,英國人從來沒有打算在這片土地上殖民。史丹利勳爵便曾經說過,英國是以外交、商業和軍事的角度去處理和統治香港,而不是以殖民的角度 (a view of colonization)[2]。故此,當十九世紀英國本土已經實施強制性普及教育的時候,香港政府卻只提供精英教育予少數高等華人的子女。這些精英教育,當然是由以英語為教學語言的學校執行;相反,中文中學則被輕視。一九零二年政府教育委員會報告書,有以下一段的結語:

把教育事務集中在開導華人精英分子會比強迫一般民眾接受新思想更為有效。就目前而言,最好及唯一的辦法是讓接受了文明思想的知識領袖來潛化那些無知的大眾。因此,英文學校應比中文學校受重視。[3]

這番說話,「公開地把商業、功利及英帝國利益等理由,套上了所謂“精英” 、“無知大眾”及“西方文明思想”等西方帝國主義的優越觀念」[4]。香港政府就是以英語及英國文化作為其政策的核心價值,以教育機器宣傳這種意識形態。在此情況下,法律條文、政府文件以至教學課程都是先以英文書寫,有需要時才根據英文原本翻譯出中文版本。甚至有說當年政府的新聞發佈,都是先以英語發給南華早報,讓其他中文報紙抄譯報導。朱耀偉便曾經撰文指出香港的中文滲滿了英文文法,到處可見中文的「英文性」和「殖民性」[5]。由此語言層面開始,一個「英上中下」的社會階級關係便建立起來了。英語成為了這個社會的資本,通曉英語的人才有機會做政務官 (Administrative Officer),有機會進入決策階層。教學語言及制度建構了一個到今時今日仍然非常穩固的「英文就是高等」的神話。


進入夾縫:殖民者與殖民者之間

隨著上述的歷史脈絡,我們不難理解為何七、八十年代前爭取提昇中文地位的各種運動都是打著反英反殖的旗號。在嬰兒潮之前,香港仍然是一個移民城市。雖說廣東話是一種主要方言,但以普通話、潮州話、福建話和客家話等為母語的新移民也是不容忽視。他們都視大陸為家、國語為自已國家的語言。北方知識份子的南下,造成北方大陸的語言及文化主導香港的文化場域。文壇上有金庸、梁羽生、劉以鬯、葉靈鳳和陶然等等;學術上有錢賓四、唐君毅、牟宗三、徐復觀等等以宏揚中國文化為已任的新儒學者。當時香港文化的代表人物,實際上是和中國大陸同一源頭,同一語言的。所以其時的中文運動,和世界上大部份殖民國的母語運動性質一樣,都是以反殖、建立身份和自我認同為目標。一九二零年,第一所漢文男子師範學校落成;一九二二年,教資會成立中文教育小組,六、七十年代中文中學更分為左右派,右派以德明、大同為首;左派則以香島和培橋為代表,互相鬥爭之餘,亦共同以反英霸權和關心祖國為宗旨。至一九七八年,中文運動的展開,成功爭取中文為合法語言,舉辦一系列的鼓吹母語的活動。故香港當時實為中國民族主義對抗殖民霸權的其中一個戰場。

在殖民地的過渡階段,一般國家都會以重建本土國族身份認同為首要任務,當中又以重新宣揚母語最為重要。它們大多會擴充教育制度,培養一批本地的解殖人才,例如公務員,外交家和教師等等,以便在後殖時期盡快擺脫前宗主國的陰影。例如尼日利亞在獨立後擴張本地教育,十六年後成功把白人中學教師的數量大幅減至百份之三十[6]。然而,香港的情況較為獨特。正因為英國從來沒有在香港進行徹底的全面殖民,除了少數精英外,大部份人根本不能以英語表達自己。一九九零年,政府的一份教育報告指出,即使是成績最優異的首百份之三十的中學畢業生,英語能力也從沒有達到老練 (sophistication) 的程度。一九九八年的一項調查更發現,普遍的大學生根本沒有足夠的英語技巧,要借助中文去完成習作。[7]

不能以英語表演自己,也沒有受過共產黨的語言訓練,香港大眾的年青一代,在缺乏「國語」的情況下,只能寄託予方言,自創港式粵語為本土意識的和文化的載體。內地在經過文革等改造運動後,無論社會集體經驗、論述方向和意識形態都與受過殖民地經驗洗禮而又自創港式粵語的香港愈走愈遠,埋下了回歸後兩地紛爭的伏線。


回歸「祖」國,「母」語教學的再殖民

「他可能會說英語或者普通話,但到底不是自小熟悉的言語,他最熟悉的粵語,卻不方便使用於書寫;他唸書時背誦古文,到社會工作卻得熟悉商業信扎的格式、廣告文字的諧謔與簡略,這種文字上的混雜不純也是文化身份的一個縮影。」[8]

也斯的說話,正好道出了以港式粵語為母語的人的心聲。在大陸和英國之間,一種「混雜不純」的交字和文化身份已經在七十年代本土意識高漲之時建立起來。這種文化不源自內地,不源自西方,也不是中英各佔一半而組成。它的混雜性、多元性、遊牧性和邊緣性,都是屬於自己,獨一無二的。

由此點出發,我們便能理解為何周蕾 (Rey Chow) 認為香港是處於殖民者與殖民者之間。「香港最獨特的,正是一種處於夾縫的特性,以及對不純粹的根源或對根源本身不純粹性質的一種自覺」,本土意識的形成及南來華人文化的退潮,使香港不再是中國民族主義對抗殖民主義的重要堡壘。她認為香港已經發展成一個處於民族主義和殖民者之間的第三空間 (third space)[9],或者黃慧貞所講的“neither/nor space”[10]。新一代香港人以自己的城市為題材,用自己的語言書寫文學、拍攝電影,研究自己生活的這個城市。他們沒有二次大戰時的經驗,腦袋載著的,是也斯的詩、黃碧雲的小說、周星馳的電影…然而,一九八四年的《中英聯合聲明》,香港在沒有發聲權的情況下,卻被定於一九九七年回歸祖國,一個論述和香港截然不同不同的「祖」國。

回歸後首年,特區政府便已經宣佈將會推行母語教學。這項解殖工程原本在普通後殖民國是屢見不鮮,香港的母語教學實際上亦是以港式粵語作教學語言。但偏偏政府又同時訂出一百間「合資格能以英語為教學語言的學校」。那一百間學校當然是被認為最好的中學。其後,二十間中學上訴,其中十四間得值,可以繼續使用英語為教學語言。宣佈結果當日,根據《南華早報》的報導,上訴成功的家長師生,高興得跳起來互相擁抱;敗訴的那邊,則抱頭痛哭。這樣,那個在港英時代已經建立起來的「英上中下」社會關係其實在回歸後根本沒有任何改變。英語在英國人撤離後仍然處在最高的地位;港式粵語仍然是最多人用的語言;由於一國兩制的實施,普通話在香港仍舊不流行。殖民地的教育體制和語言等級在中國國旗的昇起後照樣保存。

如果這個體制繼續保持下去,那麼我不會指出香港的語文教育是身處於夾縫之間殖民機器。因為無論在結構和語文地位方面,香港的語文教育都沒有任何改變,只受到英國這一個殖民意識的衝擊。但這個情況隨著二零零三年的《提昇香港語文水平行動方案》轉變。除了繼續鼓吹母語教學外,它亦鼓勵學校以普通話教授中文科。由於現階段沒有足夠以普通話教授中文科的教師,該方案甚至建議學校從內地聘請中文教師[11]。上述一切,都證明「國語滅粵」的行動正正悄悄展開。港式粵語有別於一般中國內地的方言,因為它滲入了殖民地的語言,自創一種混雜性語言,又缺少了中國內地那些共同的國家經驗和共產主義特色的語言,它是有其獨立性的。以普通話取代港式語言教授中文,把國語、母語和一種有著獨特經驗的方言畫上等號,就正如殖民者一樣,以教育機制決定殖民地的表意符號和意義。實際上,自從回歸,一些帶中國共產黨色彩的文字已經進入了港式粵語的語言體系之中,例如「統戰」和「班子」等等。港式粵語,繼在港英時代混入了「英文性」後,在回歸後又加入了「中共性」。從以上可見,我們可以在香港的語境放入福柯 (M. Foucault) 對知識和權力的看法。教育作為一個機制,產生了知識的同時,也建構了權力。知識和權力兩者間互生互滅,哪個殖民者是權力的中心,它就可以透過教育制度產生它那一套論述的知識。

語文教育背後的迷思

以上我探討了香港在殖民地時代、過渡時期和回歸後的語文政策,指出香港教學語言的選取和語文教育制度,從來都不是以建構香港人自己的語言為宗旨。從港英時代和過渡時期的英語教學,到回歸後的母語教學以至國語滅粵,都是宗主國借教育機制消滅本土語言的策略。因此,港式粵語永遠難登大雅之堂,永遠是低等語言,以它表達自己,只會引來一班語文專家的口誅筆伐。被殖民者無法以自己的語言說話,只能借用殖民者的語言,就正如後殖民批評家斯碧娃 (Gayatri Spivak) 的名言一樣「屬僚不能說話。」 (the subaltern cannot speak)。

雖說世上並無純正的語言,語言在溝通的過程中會不停重構形態和邊界,而我們亦無法阻止殖民者語言文化上的入侵,但這不代表我們要完全放棄堅守自已的一套符號。時時刻刻察覺每一套語言和機制背後的權力關係和政治性,盡可能顛覆地接受。香港人要時常反思甚麼是母語和祖國,也要同時要避免不自覺地以自己為權力中心建立另一個大香港論述和製造一個他者。這似乎是暫時惟一可行的方法。

參考書目

中文

1. 王賡武篇:《香港史新篇》(三聯, 1997)
2. 朱耀偉:〈後殖民香港中文的迷思〉,《他性機器?後殖民香港文化論集》(青文, 1998)
3. 也斯:《都市文化與香港文學》,《當代》〔38期(1989): 16-17〕
4. 周蕾:《殖民者與殖民者之間 – 九十年代香港的後殖民自創》, 《寫在家國以外》 (牛津, 1995)
5. 語文教育及研究常務委員會: 《提昇香港語文水平行動方案: 檢討總結報告》 (2003)

英文

1. Bray. Mark: Education and Decolonization: Comparative Perspectives on Change and Continuity, International Handbook of education and development: preparing schools, students and nations for the twenty-first century, ed. William K. Cummings & Noel F. McGinn.(London, Elsevier Science 1997)
2. Chao Fen Sun: Hong Kong’s Language policy in the Postcolonial Age, Crisis & Transformation in China’s Hong Kong, ed. Ming K. Chan & Alvin Y. So (N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe 2002)
3. Macaulay, Thomas: ‘Minute on Indian Education’, The post-colonial studies reader, ed. Bill Ashcroft. Gareth Griffiths. Helen Tiffin (London: Routledge 1995)
4. Wong, Wai-Ching: Negotiating Gender Identity: Postcolonialsm & Hong Kong Christian Women, Gender and Change in Hong Kong: Globalization, Postcolonialism and Chinese Patricharchy (Vancouver, UBC Press, 2003)

[1] Thomas Macaulay: ‘Minute on Indian Education’, The post-colonial studies reader, ed. Bill Ashcroft. Gareth Griffiths. Helen Tiffin, London: Routledge 1995
[2] Chao Fen Sun: Hong Kong’s Language policy in the Postcolonial Age, Crisis & Transformation in China’s Hong Kong, ed. Ming K. Chan & Alvin Y. So, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe 2002, P. 289-290
[3] 王賡武篇:《香港史新篇》(三聯, 1997), 頁443
[4] Ibid., 頁443
[5] 可參閱朱耀偉《他性機器?後殖民香港文化論集》第六章〈後殖民香港中文的迷思〉
[6] Mark Bray, Education and Decolonization: Comparative Perspectives on Change and Continuity, International Handbook of education and development: preparing schools, students and nations for the twenty-first century, ed. William K. Cummings & Noel F. McGinn., London, Elsevier Science 1997, P.103
[7] Chao Fen Sun: Hong Kong’s Language policy in the Postcolonial Age, Crisis & Transformation in China’s Hong Kong, ed. Ming K. Chan & Alvin Y. So, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe 2002, P. 293
[8] 也斯: 《都市文化與香港文學》, 《當代》〔38期(1989): 16-17〕
[9] 可參閱周蕾《殖民者與殖民者之間 – 九十年代香港的後殖民自創》, 《寫在家國以外》
[10] 可參閱 Wong, Wai-Ching, Negotiating Gender Identity: Postcolonialsm & Hong Kong Christian Women, Gender and Change in Hong Kong: Globalization, Postcolonialism and Chinese Patricharchy (Vancouver, UBC Press)
[11] 可參考語文教育及研究常務委員會2003年的《提昇香港語文水平行動方案: 檢討總結報告》

Will Positive Liberty lead to Totalitarianism?

This is the Final paper of GPA 1095 "Issues of Political Philosophy", guided by Mr. Chow Po Chung

Liberty is a difficult and complex term to discuss in the realm of political philosophy. It is associated with many other concepts like democracy, right, and toleration…etc. One of the vital contemporary discussions of the concept of liberty is triggered by Isaiah Berlin. In his famous work ‘Two Concepts of Liberty’, which is regarded as the most influential essay today, he makes a clear distinction and elaboration of positive liberty and negative liberty. And he attacks the former concept of liberty while advocating the latter one. The main reason is that positive liberty, when tracing back to our history, has been used as a tool by people to establish totalitarian rule.

The arguments in the essay have stirred up a lot of debates and discussions. For instance, G.C. MacCallum[1] and Charles Taylor[2] criticize the distinction of the concepts of liberty, and some concentrate on Berlin’s analysis of pluralism and monism. Also, some political philosophers like Adam Swift and Shi Yuankang are concerned with Berlin’s comment on positive liberty.

Different scholars have different views on the logic “positive liberty will or to large extent lead to Totalitarianism”. Some, like the Swift and Shi mentioned above, from the perspective of logic, hold the view that Berlin’s argument is weak and feeble. There is no direct and close relation between positive liberty and authoritarianism; others, like Galipeau and George Crowder[3], deal with the argument in a historical way, deem that “This is not a formal, conceptual argument, but one related to a historical and practical point” [4] positive libertarian doctrines have too often justified totalitarianism in history.

Since historical way of analysis would relate much analysis of different dynasties and regions in the history, I am not going to manage the argument by this route in this short essay. In the following I will give an outline of Berlin’s opinion about the relationship of positive liberty and totalitarianism. Then, through pointing out Berlin’s logical problems in pulling them together, I will prove that positive liberty, though having a great tendency to totalitarian rules in the past, have no direct causation with totalitarianism.

Berlin’s Two concepts of Liberty

To make everything clear in mind, I will give a short outline of Berlin’s concept of Liberty. Berlin, in his illustrious “Two Concepts of Liberty”, makes clear the concepts of positive and negative liberty, points out the danger of positive liberty and advocates negative liberty and also subsequent pluralism.

He starts by claiming that there are two hundred or even more meanings and interpretations of the word “Liberty”. Yet what attract him are the two major sense of this protean word, namely positive liberty and negative liberty.[5] In the first sense, liberty consists in ‘being one’s own master’ and one is said to be free if s/he is self-governing and directing his or her own life. A person’s autonomy and self-determining is the core of the idea. Thus freedom is concerned with questions like “By whom am I governed?” and “What, or who, is the course of control or interference that can determine someone to do, or be, this rather than that?” When one has a larger degree of mastering him or herself, he or she is seen as having more positive freedom.[6] “Freedom has also been portrayed in the form of self-realization or self-fulfilment”[7]

In the negative sense of liberty, “Political liberty in this sense is simply the area within which a man can act unobstructed by others” [8] The main points are non-interference and opportunity. Just as Charles Taylor’s words, while positive freedom is always an ‘exercise concept’, negative freedom is usually an ‘opportunity concept’.[9] So the extent of one’s freedom depends on the number of obstacles to plausible choices and activities. When more opportunities and choices are available to us, it means we have more negative freedom.

One may ask how the encouragement of chasing for positive liberty lead to totalitarianism. It is because the cores of both senses of liberty are on personal and individual level. Positive freedom consists in being an individual’s own master while negative freedom, just as Berlin said, encourages opening more doors to people.[10] Thereby what the reason is for Berlin to think that positive liberty would lead to authoritarianism or totalitarianism?

Two Routes from being “Free” to “Unfree”

According to Berlin himself, there are two ways by which positive liberty is turned to be a dangerous tool leading to unfreedom. The first route is idealism in which self is splitted into two. The second route is stemmed from the ideas of rationalism.

The core of positive liberty is self-mastery; a person is free when he can control his own life. But, just as those Platonists and Hegelians said, am I a slave of nature and desire? Everyone must have the experience of recognizing him or herself uncontrollable. This irrational me is largely due to my unlimited desire, wants and passion. If we accept the ideas of idealism, which believe the existence of a ‘real’ me and ‘ideal’ me, the aim of achieving self-mastery must be, therefore, done by sweeping all my desire and wants in order to becoming a higher self. Only by this can I really master myself. However, normally we do not have enough ability to clear all of our internal obstacles for reaching this higher self. So we need to be rigidly disciplined or restricted by someone else. That is, we have to taught and trained by the others temporarily until becoming rational.[11]

Or some may think that becoming a higher self should be done by killing their natural affections and desire by themselves. Just like those ascetics, quietist, stoics and Buddhists, as Berlin suggested, these people retreat to the inner citadel. They may have inner or spiritual freedom, but this does not mean they possess political freedom, which is the main concern of the article.[12]

And most importantly, the higher self would be regarded as something more than individual. It would be seen as a social ‘whole’ of which a person is an element or an aspect only. The society or the entity in which the people live would be thought as the” true” self everyone chases for. Thus person’s actual wishes may be ignored and the representatives of the “real” self would, in the name of helping the others to be rational, establish a totalitarian rule to oppress and torture irrational one.[13]

The above is the first road from positive liberty to totalitarianism. The next route is more or less the same. Rationalists believe ultimate harmony with an ultimate Truth. Elites are responsible for ‘liberating’ the “slaves of desire’ and tell them the right way to Truth. According to Berlin, the road of rationalism to unfreedom could be summarized into four main points:

1. All men have one purpose and that is rational self-direction;
2. The ends of all rational beings must of necessity fit into a single universal and harmonious pattern, and some men are able to discern more clearly than others;
3. All conflict and tragedy is caused solely by the clash of irrational and insufficient reasons. And these are due to immature and undeveloped elements of life on either communal or individual level. Also, they can be avoided among rational people;
4. When all men have been made rational, they will obey the law of their own nature, and they are wholly free.[14]

By the above four points, totalitarians or authoritarian rules, through rationalism, would easily be built. Rationalist, as Berlin said, “…from an ethical doctrine of individual responsibility and individual self-perfection to an authoritarian state obedient to the directives of an elite of Platonic guardians.”[15]

Will Positive Liberty lead to Totalitarianism?

Because of the experience of the danger of combining the ideas of idealism and rationalism, liberty, in its positive sense, is not encouraged by Berlin. “This is almost at the opposite pole from the purposes of those who believe in liberty in the ‘positive’ – self-directive – sense. The former want to curb authority as such. The latter want it placed in their own hands.” [16] Positive liberty will easily lead to monism, which implies totalitarianism. That’s the reason why he advocates negative liberty by which pluralism is the core of human development.

Is there strong logical link between positive liberty and totalitarianism? Though Berlin himself said there is no great logical distance between the two. What he concern is the experience in history. “Yet the ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ notions of freedom historically developed in divergent directions not always logically reputable steps, until, in the end, they came into direct conflict with each other” [17] Though historically positive liberty has a great tendency to become so dangerous, we still have to ask the validity of his argument on logical sense. To what extent will this phenomenon appear in the contemporary world? To what extent will it remerge? There are two routes in leading to totalitarianism. Can these two routes link up with positive liberty and totalitarianism?

To what extent will Idealism guide Positive Liberty to Totalitarianism?

Logically and conceptually, idealism is not very likely to turn the positive liberty chaser into an unfree situation. After examining the main and core ideas of the both concepts, we cannot find a direct causality between the two.

First, there is no direction relationship positive liberty and idealism. As Shi Yuankang said, positive liberty does not include any purport in the theory of idealism and rationalism.[18] The core of positive liberty is self-mastery. I am a positive liberty backer does not mean that I agree the splitting of self. The splitting of self is the core of idealism but not positive liberty. The ultimate goal of positive liberty is being of own master and self-governing. A positive libertarian is not determined to believe idealism while obsessing self-mastery.

Second, the acceptance of self-splitting does not imply agreeing with freedom with rationality. Once again, the essence of positive liberty is self-governing. Once this essence is lost or absent, one cannot be regarded as chasing for positive freedom. So even I agree with the splitting of ‘higher self’ and ‘lower self’, namely irrational and rational self, I do not have to sacrifice my lower self for freedom with rationality. My only aim is governing myself, and this including the mastery of my lower self. There are many values and desires other than rationality. Bearing the essence of self-mastery in my mind, though knowing that I myself is irrational, it is not necessary for me to choose rationality as my final life goal.

Third, agree with freedom with rationality is not claim that the same thing is rational for each person. Even if we link up rationality and freedom, it does not mean that we have to agree with monism which leads to totalitarianism. “We can think the different ways to live are rational for different people…” [19] Believing in rationality and self-mastery does not imply monism.
Fourth, supporting freedom with rationality does not mean that people believe the existence of a single thing which is rational for any one. We do believe in monism, which means the existence of a single way of life for everyone. And we also do not believe everyone has only one rational way of life. One is not live for one goal only, and we never know which road is the best life-plan for a rational person.

Finally and most importantly, to identify rationality with freedom of a person does not imply that you are justified in interfering his or her irrational act. From the above we prove that there is no direct relation between positive liberty and idealism. A positive libertarian does not necessarily accept idealism. And most importantly, which I am elaborating in this paragraph, even if one obsesses positive freedom and idealism simultaneously, there is no reason for him to be interfered, restricted, or even controlled. A positive libertarian must place self-mastery as the first position. If one does not believe in idealism, he or she is still a positive libertarian because of his or her insistence of chasing self mastery. Self-mastery cannot be lost. Once he or she gives up this part, one cannot be deemed as a person striving for positive freedom. Thus it is very doubtful for Berlin’s opinion in which chasing for positive liberty will lead to unfreedom.
There is one more extra argument I want to put forth here. In countering against Berlin’s idea in which positive liberty will to large extent lead to authoritarianism, Adam Swift gives a suggestion. He said that in helping or forcing the irrational people to be rational, those elites, instead of establishing an authoritarian rule, can simply provide information and education to help those ‘lower people’ to think in order to promote their autonomy.[20]

However, I think Swift makes a mistake on separating education and political structure. When rational elites want to guide or force those irrationals road to autonomy, the government, and the subsequent inseparable educational system and curriculum, must have the same direction to the same final goal. A totalitarian government will build up schools imparting knowledge which tell people the splendor and greatness of the government’s liberation career. Official ideology then spread out and strengthened. It is the same case if the government is a democratic one. So every education systems herald different ‘Rationality’ coincides with the government’s ‘Rationality’. If this ‘Rationality’ is imposed on a person who against this official thought and that person is not allowed to learn and articulate freely, he is restricted and not self-mastering already. Totalitarian rule does not simply mean oppression and restriction but also on ideological level.[21] On this sense, Swift’s view of promoting education to replace oppression and thereby avoid the establishment of totalitarian rule cannot stand.

In a nutshell, logically there is no strong link between positive liberty and Idealism. And even if there is a person adhering both ideas, as a positive libertarian, there is no reason and force for him to give up his own right of mastering him or herself. So, logically, the first route of Berlin from Freedom to unfreedom to large extent invalid.

To what extent will Rationalism bring us from Freedom to Unfreedom?

In finding the answer of the question asked in this part’s caption, we have to ask again what the relationship is between rationalism and positive freedom. Is positive liberty necessarily linked up with rationalism? Berlin’s four generalization of the view of rationalists are mentioned in the above part in this essay. Berlin must prove there is a strong causality between positive liberty and rationalism to support his argument.
For point one, rationalists believe one true purpose which is rational self-direction. It is very likely for a positive libertarian to obsess this point. They, with the aim of achieving rational self-mastery and self-governing, would to large extent agree with this idea.

Second, rationalists believe that the aims and goals of all rational beings must be fit into a universal and harmonious pattern or mode, and some people may be more able in discerning this than other people. Do positive libertarians certainly accept this view? Definitely not. The backbone of positive liberty is self-mastery. And neither does it deal with the problem of harmony nor the discernment of people. A positive libertarian could hold the view that rationality is not able to dissolve all the problems and conflicts. He or she may also think that it is impossible to reach a harmonious state. Also, chasing for positive liberty does not need to acknowledge the fact that some people are better in recognizing the rationality and some people are not. From the above we know that to large extent a positive libertarian is not necessarily agree with Berlin’s second point

Third, rationalists find that clash of irrational reasons, caused by immature and undeveloped elements in either personal or communal life, is the only source of all conflict and tragedy. And these tragic incidents can absolutely be avoided. There are no determined concepts about source of conflict and its avoidability in the minds of positive libertarians. Thereby, just as the last point, there is no absolute relationship between positive liberty and the view of conflict.

Fourth, it has been said that if all people had been taught and made rational, everyone would naturally abide by the rational law and regulations. On this sense, they are liberated; they are wholly and completely free. People chasing positive liberty do not have to agree with this point on two senses. First, it is not a must for them to believe that a rational person must obey the law naturally. Moreover, rationality does not mean freedom. Mere rationality without self-mastering would not imply being positively free. That’s why there is no reason for a positive libertarian to hold this view.

Finally, same as idealism, even one agree with the ideas of both rationalism and positive liberty, if he or she is a positive libertarian which place self-mastery as essence, this person will not accept the lost of self-governing for the sake of being rational. Thus there is no excuse or pretext for those elites, in the name of ‘helping’ or ‘guiding’ those mediocre people to be rational, seizing the freedom of the others and interfering them.

Conclusion

Through making clear the logical link between positive liberty and totalitarianism, we find that it is to small extent will chasing for positive liberty turn to being restrained. There is no direct relationship between idealism and positive liberty and rationalism and positive liberty. Since idealism and rationalism are two routes or roads which connect positive freedom and authoritarian rule, once we prove that a libertarian do not have to necessarily choose these two routes, we know that it is to small extent for them to be placed in a restricted environment. Moreover, as I have mentioned in the essay, even a positive libertarian is a idealist or a rationalist at the same time, the reason for interference of other people still does not exist.

In ‘Two Concepts of Liberty’, Berlin might want to explain the tendency of positive liberty in causing totalitarianism in history. And by this could he advocate negative liberty and the subsequent pluralism he adores. However, we cannot validate the logic of his argument simply because what had happened before. From conceptual and logical analysis, positive liberty to large extent will not lead to totalitarianism.

Bibliography


1. Berlin. I, “Two Concepts of Liberty”, Four Essays on Liberty (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969).
2. Crowder. G, “From Pluralism to Anti-Utopianism” Liberalism and Value Pluralism (London: Continuum, 2002).
3. Galipeau. C, “Pluralism and the Liberal Political Order” Isaiah Berlin’s Liberalism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994).
4. Heywood. A, Political Theory: an introduction (New York: St. Martins Press, 1999).
5. Kamenka. E, ‘Liberty’, R. Goodin, P. Pettit Ed. A companion to contemporary political philosophy (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993).
6. MacCallum. G, “Negative and positive Liberty” Miller ed. Liberty (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1991).
7. Swift. A, Political Philosophy: a beginners guide for students and politicians (Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers, 2001).
8. Taylor, Charles, “What is wrong with Negative Liberty” Miller ed. Liberty (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1991).
9. 以撒.柏林, 雷敏.亞罕拜格魯, 《以撒柏林對話錄》, 楊孝明譯 (台北: 正中書局, 1994).
10. 石元康, 〈柏林論自由〉,《當代自由主義理論》(上海: 三聯書店, 2000).

[1] G. MacCallum, “Negative and positive Liberty” Miller ed. Liberty (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1991), 100-122.
[2] Charles Taylor, “What is wrong with Negative Liberty” Miller ed. Liberty (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1991), 141-162.
[3] G. Crowder, “From Pluralism to Anti-Utopianism” Liberalism and Value Pluralism (London: Continuum, 2002), 90-97.
[4] Claude Galipeau, “Pluralism and the Liberal Political Order” Isaiah Berlin’s Liberalism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994),120.
[5] I. Berlin, “Two Concepts of Liberty”, Four Essays on Liberty (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 121.
[6] Ibid., 121-122.
[7] A. Heywood, Political Theory: an introduction (New York: St. Martins Press, 1999), Chapter 9, 263
[8] I. Berlin, “Two Concepts of Liberty”, Four Essays on Liberty (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 122.
[9] See Charles Taylor, “What is wrong with Negative Liberty” Miller ed. Liberty (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1991), 141-162.
[10] 以撒.柏林, 雷敏.亞罕拜格魯, 《以撒柏林對話錄》, 楊孝明譯 (台北: 正中書局, 1994), 51.
[11] I. Berlin, “Two Concepts of Liberty”, Four Essays on Liberty (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 131-134.
[12] Ibid., 135-137.
[13] Ibid., 131-134.
[14] Ibid., 154.
[15] Ibid., 152.
[16] Ibid., 166.
[17] Ibid., 132.
[18] 石元康, 〈柏林論自由〉,《當代自由主義理論》(上海: 三聯書店, 2000), 23.
[19] A. Swift, Political Philosophy: a beginners guide for students and politicians (Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers, 2001), 84.
[20] Ibid., 78.
[21] See the five factors justify the word ‘totalitarian’ of Eugene Kamenka ‘Liberty’ in R. Goodin, P. Pettit Ed. A companion to contemporary political philosophy (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), 632.